Nanotechnology and polymer nanocomposites
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MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION
SCIENTIFIC-TECHNOLOGICAL
COMPLEX
“FAN VA TARAQQIYOT”
REPORT
NANOTECHNOLOGY
& NANOCOMPOSITES
Prepared by: 2nd year post-graduate student Rahimov G.N.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOC o "1-3" h z u NANOTECHNOLOGY. PAGEREF _Toc136068288 h 3
History of use. PAGEREF _Toc136068289 h 4
Potential benefits. PAGEREF _Toc136068290 h 5
Potential risks. PAGEREF _Toc136068291 h 6
Manufacturing.. PAGEREF _Toc136068292 h 6
Key Characteristics. PAGEREF _Toc136068293 h 7
Problems. PAGEREF _Toc136068294 h 8
Interdisciplinarian ensemble. PAGEREF _Toc136068295 h 9
Prominent individuals in nanotechnology. PAGEREF _Toc136068296 h 10
NANOCOMPOSITES. PAGEREF _Toc136068297 h 11
Introduction. PAGEREF _Toc136068298 h 11
Polymer Nanocomposites. PAGEREF _Toc136068299 h 12
PNC Framework. PAGEREF _Toc136068300 h 15
Properties And Applications of PNC’S. PAGEREF _Toc136068301 h 16
Advantages of Nanosized Additions. PAGEREF _Toc136068302 h 16
Disadvantages of Nanosized Additions. PAGEREF _Toc136068303 h 16
Particle Loadings. PAGEREF _Toc136068304 h 17
Areas of Application. PAGEREF _Toc136068305 h 17
Gas Barriers. PAGEREF _Toc136068306 h 18
Oxygen Barriers. PAGEREF _Toc136068307 h 18
Food Packaging.. PAGEREF _Toc136068308 h 19
Fuel Tanks. PAGEREF _Toc136068309 h 19
Films. PAGEREF _Toc136068310 h 20
Environmental Protection. PAGEREF _Toc136068311 h 20
Flammability Reduction. PAGEREF _Toc136068312 h 21
Conclusion. PAGEREF _Toc136068313 h 22
REFERENCES. PAGEREF _Toc136068314 h 24
INTERNET SOURCES. PAGEREF _Toc136068315 h 24
TRANSLATION.. PAGEREF _Toc136068316 h 25
НАНОТЕХНОЛОГИЯ.. PAGEREF _Toc136068317 h 26
История. PAGEREF _Toc136068318 h 27
Открытия, сделанные в области нанотехнологий.. PAGEREF _Toc136068319 h 28
Наночастицы.. PAGEREF _Toc136068320 h 28
Атомно-силовая микроскопия. PAGEREF _Toc136068321 h 29
Самоорганизация наночастиц.. PAGEREF _Toc136068322 h 29
Проблема образования агломератов. PAGEREF _Toc136068323 h 30
Новейшие достижения. PAGEREF _Toc136068324 h 30
Графен.. PAGEREF _Toc136068325 h 30
Транзистор из нанотрубок. PAGEREF _Toc136068326 h 31
Новый процессор Intel PAGEREF _Toc136068327 h 31
Плазмон.. PAGEREF _Toc136068328 h 31
Антенна-осциллятор.. PAGEREF _Toc136068329 h 32
Экономическое развитие индустрии в сфере нанотехнологий.. PAGEREF _Toc136068330 h 32
Известные личности в сфере нанотехнологий.. PAGEREF _Toc136068331 h 32
Использованная литература и ссылки.. PAGEREF _Toc136068332 h 33
Интернет источники.. PAGEREF _Toc136068333 h 33
NANOTECHNOLOGY
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Nanotechnology research is generating a variety of constructs, giving researchers great flexibility in their efforts to change the paradigm. Shown here are two such structures. On the left are highly stable nanoparticles. On the right are spherical dendrimers, which are of rigorously defined size based on the number of monomer layers. Like most of the other nanoparticles being developed, these are easily manipulated, affording researchers the opportunity to add a variety of molecules to the surfaces and interiors of the nanoparticles. |
Nanotechnology comprises technological developments on
the nanometer scale, usually 0.1 to 100 nm (1/1,000 µm, or 1/1,000,000 mm). A
possible way to interpret this size is to take the width of a hair, and imagine
something ten thousand times smaller. The term has sometimes been applied to
microscopic technology. Nanotechnology is any technology which exploits
phenomena and structures that can only occur at the nanometer scale, which is
the scale of several atoms and small molecules. The Nanoscience and nanotechnology are an extension of the field of materials science, and materials science departments at universities around the world in conjunction with physics, mechanical engineering, bioengineering, and chemical engineering departments are leading the breakthroughs in nanotechnology. The related term nanotechnology is used to describe the interdisciplinary fields of science devoted to the study of nanoscale phenomena employed in nanotechnology. Nanoscience is the world of atoms, molecules, macromolecules, quantum dots, and macromolecular assemblies, and is dominated by surface effects such as Van der Waals force attraction, hydrogen bonding, electronic charge, ionic bonding, covalent bonding, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and quantum mechanical tunneling, to the virtual exclusion of macro-scale effects such as turbulence and inertia. For example, the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume opens new possibilities in surface-based science, such as catalysis.
History of use
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Richard Feynman, physicist |
The first mention of some of the distinguishing concepts in
nanotechnology (but predating use of that name) was in "There's Plenty of
Room at the Bottom," a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at an
American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman
described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and
molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and
operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale. In
the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing
magnitude of various physical phenomena: gravity would become less important,
surface tension and Van der Waals
attraction would become more important, etc. This basic idea appears feasible,
and exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful
quantity of end products.
The term "nanotechnology" was defined by
Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper (N.
Taniguchi, "On the Basic Concept of 'Nano-Technology',"
Proc. Intl. Conf. Prod.
More broadly, nanotechnology includes the many techniques used to create structures at a size scale below 100 nm, including those used for fabrication of nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers. It should be noted, however, that all of these techniques preceded the nanotech era, and are extensions in the development of scientific advancements rather than techniques which were devised with the sole purpose of creating nanotechnology or which were results of nanotechnology research.
Technologies currently branded with the term 'nano' are little related to and fall far short of the most ambitious and transformative technological goals of the sort in molecular manufacturing proposals, but the term still connotes such ideas. Thus there may be a danger that a "nano bubble" will form from the use of the term by scientists and entrepreneurs to garner funding, regardless of (and perhaps despite a lack of) interest in the transformative possibilities of more ambitious and far-sighted work. The diversion of support based on the promises of proposals like molecular manufacturing to more mundane projects also risks creating a perhaps unjustifiedly cynical impression of the most ambitious goals: an investor intrigued by molecular manufacturing who invests in 'nano' only to find typical materials science advances result might conclude that the whole idea is hype, unable to appreciate the bait-and-switch made possible by the vagueness of the term. On the other hand, some have argued that the publicity and competence in related areas generated by supporting such 'soft nano' projects is valuable, even if indirect, progress towards nanotechnology's most ambitious goals.
Potential benefits
Nanotechnology covers a wide range of industries, and therefore the potential benefits are also widespread. Telecommunications and Information technology could benefit in terms of faster computers and advanced data storage.
Healthcare could see improvements in skin care and protection, advanced pharmaceuticals, drug delivery systems, biocompatible materials, nerve and tissue repair, and cancer treatments.
Other industries benefits include catalysts, sensors and magnetic materials and devices.
Potential risks
For the near-term, critics of nanotechnology point to the potential toxicity of new classes of nanosubstances that could adversely affect the stability of cell membranes or disturb the immune system when inhaled, digested or absorbed through the skin. Objective risk assessment can profit from the bulk of experience with long-known microscopic materials like carbon soot or asbestos fibres. Nanoparticles in the environment could potentially accumulate in the food chain.
An often cited worst-case scenario is "grey goo", a hypothetical substance into which the surface objects of the earth might be transformed by self-replicating nanobots running amok.
Societal risks from the use of nanotechnology have also been raised, such as hypothetical nanotech weapons (e.g., a nanomachine that consumed the rubber in tires would quickly disable many vehicles), and in the creation of undetectable surveillance capabilities.
Manufacturing
When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric Drexler, who at the time was unaware of Taniguchi's usage, it referred to a future manufacturing technology based on molecular machine systems. The premise was that molecular-scale biological analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated that molecular machines were possible, and that a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings, motors, and structural members) would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic specification (see the original reference PNAS-1981). The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in the textbook Nanosystems.
Because the term "nanotechnology" was subsequently applied to other uses, new terms evolved to refer to this distinct usage: "molecular nanotechnology," "molecular manufacturing," and most recently, "productive nanosystems."
One alternative view is that designs such as those proposed by Drexler and Merkle do not accurately account for the electrostatic interactions and will not operate according to the results of the analysis in Nanosystems. The contention is that man-made nanodevices will probably bear a much stronger resemblance to other (less mechanical) nanodevices found in nature: cells, viruses, and prions. This idea is explored by Richard A. L. Jones in his book Soft Machines: Nanotechnology and Life (ISBN 0-19-852855-8).
Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno, is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines, and his group's research is directed toward this end.
The seminal experiment proving that positional
molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho and Lee at
Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-biological molecular machines are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular machines are Dr. Alex Zettl and his groups at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley. They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a rotating molecular motor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.
Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.
Key Characteristics
Some nanodevices self-assemble. That is, they are built by mixing two or more complementary and mutually attractive pieces together so they make a more complex and useful whole. Other nanodevices must be built piece by piece in stages, much as manufactured items are currently made. Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials. Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes can be used to look at surfaces and to move atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. Atoms can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques, but it is cumbersome, expensive and very time-consuming, and for these reasons it is quite simply not feasible to construct nanoscaled devices atom by atom. You don't want to assemble a billion transistors into a microchip by taking an hour to place each transistor, but these techniques may eventually be used to make primitive nanomachines, which in turn can be used to make more sophisticated nanomachines.
Natural or man-made particles or artifacts often have qualities and capabilities quite different from their macroscopic counterparts. Gold, for example, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales.
"Nanosize" powder
particles (a few nanometres in diameter, also called nano-particles) are potentially important in ceramics,
powder metallurgy, the achievement of uniform nanoporosity,
and similar applications. The strong tendency of small particles to form clumps
("agglomerates") is a serious technological problem that impedes such
applications. However, a few dispersants such as ammonium citrate (aqueous) and
imidazoline or oleyl
alcohol (nonaqueous) are promising additives for deagglomeration. (Those materials are discussed in
"Organic Additives And Ceramic Processing," by Daniel J. Shanefield, Kluwer Academic Publ.,
Problems
One of the problems facing nanotechnology concerns how to assemble atoms and molecules into smart materials and working devices. Supramolecular chemistry, a very important tool here, is the chemistry beyond the molecule, and molecules are being designed to self-assemble into larger structures. In this case, biology is a place to find inspiration: cells and their pieces are made from self-assembling biopolymers such as proteins and protein complexes. One of the things being explored is synthesis of organic molecules by adding them to the ends of complementary DNA strands such as ----A and ----B, with molecules A and B attached to the end; when these are put together, the complementary DNA strands hydrogen bonds into a double helix, ====AB, and the DNA molecule can be removed to isolate the product AB.
Advanced nanotechnology
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An array of carbon nanotubes provides an addressable platform for probing intact, living cells. |
Advanced
nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, is a term given to
the concept of engineered nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. By
the countless examples found in biology it is currently known that billions of
years of evolutionary feedback can produce sophisticated, stochastically
optimized biological machines, and it is hoped that developments in
nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some shorter means,
perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, K Eric Drexler and other researchers have proposed that advanced
nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic
means, ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles.
In August
Determining a set of pathways for the development of molecular nanotechnology is now an objective of a broadly based technology roadmap project [5] led by Battelle (the manager of several U.S. National Laboratories) and the Foresight Institute. That roadmap should be completed by early 2018.
Interdisciplinarian ensemble
A definitive feature of nanotechnology is that it constitutes an interdisciplinary ensemble of several fields of the natural sciences that are, in and of themselves, actually highly specialized. Thus, physics plays an important role—alone in the construction of the microscope used to investigate such phenomena but above all in the laws of quantum mechanics.
Prominent individuals in nanotechnology
Richard Feynman - gave the first mention of some of the distinguishing concepts in a 1959 talk
Norio Taniguchi - defined the term "nanotechnology"
K. Eric Drexler - promoted the technological significance, described Grey goo scenario
Robert Freitas - nanomedicine theorist
Ralph Merkle - nanotechnology theorist
Sumio Iijima - discoverer of nanotubes
Richard Smalley - co-discoverer of buckminsterfullerene
Harry Kroto - co-discoverer of buckminsterfullerene
Erwin Müller - invented the field ion microscope, and the atom probe.
Gerd Binnig - co-inventor of the scanning tunneling microscope
Heinrich Rohrer - co-inventor of the scanning tunneling microscope
Paul Alivisatos - Director of the Materials Sciences Division at
the
Chris Phoenix - co-founder of the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology
Mike Treder - co-founder of the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology
Phaedon Avouris - first electronic devices made out of carbon nanotubes
Alex Zettl - Built the first molecular motor based on carbon nanotubes
NANOCOMPOSITES
A rapidly growing area of nano-engineered materials provides a new dimension for plastics and composites
Introduction
The definition of nano-composite material has broadened significantly to encompass a large variety of systems such as one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional and amorphous materials, made of distinctly dissimilar components and mixed at the nanometer scale.
The general class of nanocomposite organic/inorganic materials is a fast growing area of research. Significant effort is focused on the ability to obtain control of the nanoscale structures via innovative synthetic approaches. The properties of nano-composite materials depend not only on the properties of their individual parents but also on their morphology and interfacial characteristics.
This rapidly expanding field is generating many exciting new materials with novel properties. The latter can derive by combining properties from the parent constituents into a single material. There is also the possibility of new properties which are unknown in the parent constituent materials.
The inorganic components can be three-dimensional framework systems such as zeolites, two-dimensional layered materials such as clays, metal oxides, metal phosphates, chalcogenides, and even one-dimensional and zero-dimensional materials such as (Mo3Se3-)n chains and clusters. Experimental work has generally shown that virtually all types and classes of nanocomposite materials lead to new and improved properties when compared to their macrocomposite counterparts. Therefore, nanocomposites promise new applications in many fields such as mechanically reinforced lightweight components, non-linear optics, battery cathodes and ionics, nano-wires, sensors and other systems.
The general class of organic/inorganic nanocomposites may also be of relevance to issues of bio-ceramics and biomineralization in which in-situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix is occurring. Finally, lamellar nanocomposites represent an extreme case of a composite in which interface interactions between the two phases are maximized. Since the remarkable properties of conventional composites are mainly due to interface interactions, the materials dealt with here could provide good model systems in which such interactions can be studied in detail using conventional bulk sample (as opposed to surface) techniques. By judiciously engineering the polymer-host interactions, nanocomposites may be produced with a broad range of properties.
Inorganic layered materials exist in great variety. They possess well defined, ordered intralamellar space potentially accessible by foreign species. This ability enables them to act as matrices or hosts for polymers, yielding interesting hybrid nano-composite materials.
Polymer Nanocomposites
Materials and their development are fundamental to society. Major
historical periods of society are ascribed to materials (i.e., stone age,
bronze age, iron age, steel age [industrial revolution]; silicon age and silica
age [telecom revolution]). Scientists will open the next societal frontiers not
by understanding a particular material, but rather by understanding and
optimizing the relative contributions afforded by material combinations.
The nanoscale, and the associated excitement surrounding nanoscience and technology, affords unique opportunities to create these revolutionary material combinations. These new materials promise to enable the circumvention of classic material performance trade-offs by accessing new properties and exploiting unique synergisms between constituents that only occur when the length scale of the morphology and the critical length associated with the fundamental physics of a given property coincide. From a materials perspective, morphologies that exhibit nanoscopic features are necessary but far from sufficient – the key opportunities are afforded either when the physical size of the material’s constituents is engineered to coincide with the onset of nonbulk-like behavior, such as observed for the size-dependent light emission of quantum dots (QDs), orwhen a structure-property relationship approaches a singularity or depends nonlinearly on aspects of the morphology, such as the internal interfacial area.
Polymeric nanocomposites (PNCs) have been an area of intense industrial and academic research for the past 20 years. No matter the measure – articles, patents, or R&D funding – efforts in PNCs have been exponentially growing worldwide over the last ten years. PNCs represent a radical alternative to conventional filled polymers or polymer blends – a staple of the modern plastics industry.
The reinforcement of polymers using fillers, whether inorganic or organic, is common in the production of modern plastics. Polymeric nanocomposites or polymer nanostructured materials represent a radical alternative to conventional-filled polymers or polymer blends. In contrast to the conventional systems where the reinforcement is on the order of microns, discrete constituents on the order of a few nanometers (~10,000 times finer than a human hair) exemplify PNCs.
Uniform dispersion of these nanoscopically sized filler particles (or nanoelements) produces ultra-large interfacial area per volume between the nanoelement and host polymer. This immense internal interfacial area and the nanoscopic dimensions between nanoelements fundamentally differentiate PNCs from traditional composites and filled plastics. Thus, new combinations of properties derived from the nanoscale structure of PNCs provide opportunities to circumvent traditional performance trade-offs associated with conventional reinforced plastics, epitomizing the promise of nano-engineered materials.
A literature search provides many examples of PNCs, demonstrating substantial improvements in mechanical and physical properties. However, the nanocomposite properties discussed are generally compared to unfilled and conventional-filled polymers, but are not compared to continuous fiber reinforced composites. Although PNCs may provide enhanced, multifunctional matrix resins, they should not be considered a potential one-for-one replacement for current state-of-the-art carbon-fiber reinforced composites.
From both a commercial and military perspective, the value of PNC technology is not based solely on mechanical enhancements of the neat resin. Rather, it comes from providing value-added properties not present in the neat resin, without sacrificing the inherent processibility and mechanical properties of the resin. Traditionally, blend or composite attempts at multifunctional materials require a trade-off between desired performance, mechanical properties, cost, and processibility.
Considering the number of potential nanoelements, polymeric resins, and applications, the field of PNCs is immense. Development of multicomponent materials, whether microscale or nanoscale, must simultaneously balance four interdependent areas: constituent-selection, fabrication, processing, and performance. This is still in its infancy for PNCs, but ultimately scientists will develop many perspectives dictated by the final application of the PNC. Researchers developed two main PNC fabrication methodologies: in-situ routes and exfoliation. Currently, researchers in industry, government, and academia worldwide are heavily investigating exfoliation of layered silicates, carbon nanofibers/nanotube-polymer nanocomposites, and high-performance resin PNCs.
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This picture shows the complex arrangement of the copper conductors in a computer chip. The smallest wires are less than a millionth of a meter in diameter. Copper is starting to replace aluminum in computer chips because it conducts electricity better (better performance!) and has a higher melting temperature (lasts longer!). It took many years of materials science research worldwide to figure out how to produce chips with copper conductors. |
Notwithstanding the considerable advances in exfoliated PNCs, scientists must still conduct substantial fundamental
research to provide a basic understanding of these materials to enable full
exploitation of their nano-engineering potential.
Despite the large number of combinations of matrices and potential reinforcing nanoelements with different chemistry, size, shape, and
properties, all PNCs share common features with
regard to fabrication methodologies, processing, morphology characterization,
and fundamental physics.
Developing an understanding of the characteristics of this interphase region, its dependence on nanoelement surface chemistry, the relative arrangement of constituents and, ultimately, its relationship to the PNC properties, is a current research frontier in nanocomposites. Equally important is the development of a general understanding of the morphology-property relationships for mechanical, barrier, and thermal response of these systems. This necessitates the determination of the critical length and temporal scale with which continuum description of a physical process must give way to mesoscopic and atomistic view of these nanoscale systems—a current challenge for computational materials science.
A rapidly growing area of nano-engineered materials is PNCs, providing lighter weight alternatives to conventional-filled plastics with additional functionality associated with nanoscale-specific value-added properties. If the promise and excitement surrounding layered silicates and carbon nanotubes are any indication, the future of PNC technology is truly boundless. The opportunities to extend PNC concepts to other nanoelements and polymer hosts are immense, opening the way to provide tailor-made materials that circumvent current limitations and enable future concepts.
PNC Framework
The initial question when beginning to examine polymer nanocomposites is: how are these materials different from classic filled polymers or traditional composites? As anticipated, there is no simple answer; rather ‘they are related, but bring new opportunities, perspectives, and issues.’ Whether tubes (e.g. single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes, SWNT and MWNTs, respectively) or plates (e.g. exfoliated graphite, layered silicates), the nanoscopic dimensions and extreme aspect ratios inherent in these nanofillers result in six interrelated characteristics distinguishing the resultant PNCs from classic filled systems:
q Low percolation threshold (~0.1-2 vol%);
q Particle-particle correlation (orientation and position) arising at low volume fractions (φ C < 0.001);
q Large number density of particles per particle volume (106-108 particles/µm3);
q Extensive interfacial area per volume of particles (103-104 m2/ml);
q Short distances between particles (10-50 nm at φ ~1-8 vol%); and
q Comparable size scales among the rigid nanoparticle inclusion, distance between particles, and the relaxation volume of polymer chains.
Properties And Applications of PNC’S
Advantages of Nanosized Additions
Researches have revealed clearly the property advantages that nanomaterial additives can provide in comparison to both their conventional filler counterparts and base polymer. Properties which have been shown to undergo substantial improvements include:
· Mechanical properties e.g. strength, modulus and dimensional stability
· Decreased permeability to gases, water and hydrocarbons
· Thermal stability and heat distortion temperature
· Flame retardancy and reduced smoke emissions
· Chemical resistance
· Surface appearance
· Electrical conductivity
· Optical clarity in comparison to conventionally filled polymers
Disadvantages of Nanosized Additions
To date one of the few disadvantages associated with nanoparticle incorporation has concerned toughness and impact performance. Some of the data presented has suggested that nanoclay modification of polymers such as polyamides, could reduce impact performance. Clearly this is an issue which would require consideration for applications where impact loading events are likely. In addition, further research will be necessary to, for example, develop a better understanding of formulation/structure/property relationships, better routes to platelet exfoliation and dispersion etc.
Particle Loadings
In addition it is important to recognise that nanoparticulate/fibrous loading confers significant property improvements with very low loading levels, traditional microparticle additives requiring much higher loading levels to achieve similar performance. This in turn can result in significant weight reductions (of obvious importance for various military and aerospace applications) for similar performance, greater strength for similar structural dimensions and, for barrier applications, increased barrier performance for similar material thickness.
Areas of Application
Such mechanical property improvements have resulted in major interest in nanocomposite materials in numerous automotive and general/industrial applications. These include potential for utilisation as mirror housings on various vehicle types, door handles, engine covers and intake manifolds and timing belt covers. More general applications currently being considered include usage as impellers and blades for vacuum cleaners, power tool housings, mower hoods and covers for portable electronic equipment such as mobile phones, pagers etc.
Gas Barriers
The gaseous barrier property improvement that can result from incorporation of relatively small quantities of nanoclay materials is shown to be substantial. Data provided from various sources indicates oxygen transmission rates for polyamide-organoclay composites which are usually less than half that of the unmodified polymer. Further data reveals the extent to which both the amount of clay incorporated in the polymer, and the aspect ratio of the filler contributes to overall barrier performance. In particular, aspect ratio is shown to have a major effect, with high ratios (and hence tendencies towards filler incorporation at the nano-level) quite dramatically enhancing gaseous barrier properties. Such excellent barrier characteristics have resulted in considerable interest in nanoclay composites in food packaging applications, both flexible and rigid. Specific examples include packaging for processed meats, cheese, confectionery, cereals and boil-in-the-bag foods, also extrusion-coating applications in association with paperboard for fruit juice and dairy products, together with co-extrusion processes for the manufacture of beer and carbonated drinks bottles. The use of nanocomposite formulations would be expected to enhance considerably the shelf life of many types of food.
Oxygen Barriers
Honeywell have also been active in developing a combined active/passive oxygen barrier system for polyamide-6 materials. Passive barrier characteristics are provided by nanoclay particles incorporated via melt processing techniques whilst the active contribution comes from an oxygen scavenging ingredient (undisclosed). Oxygen transmission results reveal substantial benefits provided by nanoclay incorporation in comparison to the base polymer (rates approximately 15-20% of the bulk polymer value, with further benefits provided by the combined active/passive system). Akkapeddi suggests that the increased tortuosity provided by the nanoclay particles essentially slows transmission of oxygen through the composite and drives molecules to the active scavenging species resulting in near zero oxygen transmission for a considerable period of time.
Food Packaging
Triton Systems and the US Army are conducting further work on barrier performance in a joint investigation. The requirement here is for a non-refrigerated packaging system capable of maintaining food freshness for three years. Nanoclay polymer composites are currently showing considerable promise for this application. It is likely that excellent gaseous barrier properties exhibited by nanocomposite polymer systems will result in their substantial use as packaging materials in future years. A somewhat more esoteric possibility arising from enhanced barrier performance recently suggested has been blown–films for artificial intestines!
Fuel Tanks
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Advanced nanocomposite materials are being applied to industry |
The ability of nanoclay
incorporation to reduce solvent transmission through polymers such as
polyamides has been demonstrated. Data provided by De Bievre
and Nakamura of UBE Industries reveals significant reductions in fuel
transmission through polyamide–6/66 polymers by incorporation of a nanoclay filler. As a result, considerable interest is now
being shown in these materials as both fuel tank and fuel line components for
cars. Of further interest for this type of application, the reduced fuel
transmission characteristics are accompanied by significant material cost
reductions.
Films
The presence of filler incorporation at nano-levels has also been shown to have significant effects on the transparency and haze characteristics of films. In comparison to conventionally filled polymers, nanoclay incorporation has been shown to significantly enhance transparency and reduce haze. With polyamide based composites, this effect has been shown to be due to modifications in the crystallisation behaviour brought about by the nanoclay particles; spherilitic domain dimensions being considerably smaller. Similarly, nano-modified polymers have been shown, when employed to coat polymeric transparency materials, to enhance both toughness and hardness of these materials without interfering with light transmission characteristics. An ability to resist high velocity impact combined with substantially improved abrasion resistance was demonstrated by Haghighat of Triton Systems.
Environmental Protection
Water laden atmospheres have long been regarded as one
of the most damaging environments which polymeric materials can encounter. Thus
an ability to minimise the extent to which water is
absorbed can be a major advantage. Data provided by Beall
from
Flammability Reduction
The ability of nanoclay
incorporation to reduce the flammability of polymeric materials was a major
theme of the paper presented by Gilman of the National Institute of Standards
and Technology in the
Conclusion
Today, nanocomposites are really nanofilled plastics, where the total internal interfacial area becomes the critical characteristic rather than simply the relative volume fraction of constituents. The use of the moniker nano-‘composites’ invokes parallels to traditional fiber-reinforced composite technology and the ability to spatially ‘engineer, design, and tailor’ materials performance for a given application. Currently, the realization of ‘compositing’ PNCs is over the horizon. For the vast majority of investigations, the challenge is still to achieve single-particle dispersions and the subsequent PNCs are treated much as an isotropic, filled polymer. Only recently have examples emerged that consider cost-effective approaches to provide spatial and orientational control of the hierarchical morphology with a precision comparable to that conventionally obtained through fiber plies and weaving – thus transforming ‘nano-filled systems’ to ‘nanocomposite systems’. In parallel, PNCs are moving beyond commodity plastic applications to critical components of active devices, such as fuel cell membranes, photovoltaics, sensors, and actuators.
PNCs have great potential, especially when viewed with respect to the explosion of available functional nanoparticles, enabling never-before-realized properties to be generated within plastics. The underlying framework of PNCs implies that the physics and chemistry of these systems parallels many macromolecular systems, not just filled polymers. By considering the idealized framework, examination of the underlying principles defining structure-property relationships can begin, and the potential pitfalls arising from extrapolating structure-property relationships of classic filled systems can be considered and addressed. The necessary foundation and tools to address system-specific complexities and process-history dependencies, such as nonequilibrium phenomena including irreversible aggregation, nanoparticle network association, percolation, and ultra-long relaxation times of process-induced orientation (glass-like behavior), are beginning to evolve. The topological similarities between PNCs and other mesoscale polymer systems, such as semicrystalline polymers, block-copolymers, liquid crystals, and colloids, are the impetus for many of these current efforts, providing significant guidance toward understanding the role of processing on structure control and the ultimate impact on properties.
So, is the full realization of PNCs technologically here? No, but it is a viable option today when considering the selection of filled or blend polymer systems. Will PNCs deliver the potential currently ascribed? That is still to be determined, especially since realistic estimates of the ultimate potential, which are based on fundamental understanding of the physics at these scales, are still in development. However, the possibilities are engaging communities worldwide, and the scientific literature is being enriched at an increasing rate with works that show great promise and are beginning to establish a pervasive fundamental understanding of PNC structure-property relationships.
REFERENCES
- "Nanoscale Composites Formed by Encapsulation of Polymers in MoS2. From Conjugated Polymers to Plastics. Detection of Metal to Insulator Transition." R. Bissessur, J. L. Schindler, C. R. Kannewurf and Mercouri Kanatzidis, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 1993, 245, 249-254
- "Topotactic Solid-State Polymerization of Aniline in Layered Uranyl Phosphate" Y.-J. Liu andM. G. Kanatzidis, Inorg. Chem. 1993, 32, 2989-2991
- "Encapsulation of Polymers into MoS2 and Metal to Insulator Transition in Metastable MoS2" R.Bissessur, M, Kanatzidis, J. L. Schindler and C. R. Kannewurf, J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1993, 1582-1585
- "Lamellar Polymer-LixMoO3 Nanocomposites Via Encapsulative Precipitation" Lei Wang, Jon Schindler, Carl R. Kannewurf, Mercouri G. Kanatzidis, J. Mater. Chem., 1997, 7, 1277-1283.
- "a -RuCl3: A New Host for Polymer Intercalation. Lamellar Polymer/RuCl3 Nanocomposites" L. Wang, P. Brazis, M. Rocci, C. R. Kannewurf, M. G. Kanatzidis, in "Organic/Inorganic Hybrid Materials" Eds. R. M. Laine, C. Sanchez, C. J. Brinker, E. Giannelis, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 1998, Vol. 519, 257-264.
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TRANSLATION
НАНОТЕХНОЛОГИЯ
Нанотехнология — область науки и техники,
занимающаяся изучением свойств частиц и созданием устройств, имеющих размер
порядка нанометра. Приставка нано- — приставка СИ (метрической системы единиц),
означающая одну миллиардную долю чего-либо, соответственно один нанометр = 1·10-
При работе с такими малыми размерами проявляются квантовые эффекты и эффекты межмолекулярных взаимодействий, такие как Ван-дер-Ваальсовы взаимодействия. Нанотехнология, и в особенности молекулярная технология — новые области, очень мало исследованные. Развитие современной электроники идёт по пути уменьшения размеров устройств. Однако классические методы производства подходят к своему естественному экономическому и технологическому барьеру, когда размер устройства уменьшается не на много, зато экономические затраты возрастают экспоненциально. Нанотехнология — следующий логический шаг развития электроники и других наукоёмких производств.
1 История
2 Открытия, сделанные в области нанотехнологий
2.1 Наночастицы
2.2 Атомно-силовая микроскопия
2.3 Самоорганизация наночастиц
2.4 Проблема образования агломератов
2.5 Новейшие достижения
2.5.1 Графен
2.5.2 Транзистор из нанотрубок
2.5.3 Новый процессор Intel
2.5.4 Плазмон
2.5.5 Антенна-осциллятор
3 Индустрия нанотехнологий
История
Первое упоминание о методах, которые впоследствии назовут нанотехнологией, сделал Ричард Фейнман в 1959 году в своей знаменитой речи «Там внизу полно места» («There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom»). Он предположил, что возможно перемещать атомы отдельно, механически, при помощи манипулятора соответствующих размеров.
Этот манипулятор он предложил делать следующим способом. Необходимо построить механизм, создававший бы свою копию, только на порядок меньшую. Созданный меньший механизм должен опять создать свою копию, опять на порядок меньшую и так до тех пор, пока размеры механизма не будут соизмеримы с размерами порядка одного атома. При этом необходимо будет делать изменения в устройстве этого механизма, так как силы гравитации, действующие в макромире будут оказывать все меньшее влияние, а силы межмолекулярных взаимодействий и Ван-дер-Ваальсовы силы будут все больше влиять на работу механизма. Последний этап — полученный механизм соберёт свою копию из отдельных атомов. Принципиально число таких копий неограниченно, можно будет за короткое время создать любое число таких машин. Эти машины смогут таким же способом, по атомной сборкой собирать макровещи. Это позволит сделать вещи на порядок дешевле — таким роботам (нанороботам) нужно будет дать только необходимое количество молекул и энергию, и написать программу для сборки необходимых предметов. До сих пор никто не смог опровергнуть эту возможность, но и никому пока не удалось создать такие механизмы.
Впервые термин «нанотехнология» употребил Норио Танигучи в 1974 году. Он назвал этим термином производство изделий размеров, порядка нанометров. В 1980-х годах этот термин использовал Эрик К. Дрекслер, особенно в своей книге «Машины создания: грядёт эра нанотехнологии» («Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology»), которая вышла в 1986 году. Этим термином он называл новую область науки, которую он исследовал в своей докторской диссертации в Массачусетском Технологическом Институте (МТИ). Результаты своих исследований он впоследствии опубликовал в книге «Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation». Главную роль в его исследованиях играли математические расчёты, поскольку с их помощью до сих пор можно проанализировать предположительные свойства и разработать устройства размеров порядка нанометров.
В основном сейчас рассматривается возможность механического манипулирования молекулами и создание самовоспроизводящихся манипуляторов для этих целей. Как уже было сказано, это позволит многократно удешевить любые существующие продукты и создать принципиально новые, решить все существующие экологические проблемы. Также такие манипуляторы имеют огромный медицинский потенциал: они способны ремонтировать повреждённые клетки человека, что приводит фактически к реальному техническому бессмертию человека. С другой стороны, создание наноманипуляторов может привести к сценарию «серой жижи». Также предполагают возможным сценарий, когда определённая группа людей получает полное управление над таким манипулятором и использует его, чтобы полностью утвердить свою власть над другими людьми. Если этот сценарий осуществится, получится идеальная монополия, которую, по-видимому, невозможно будет уничтожить.
В РФ с 1994 года развивается проект "Искусственный интеллект и нанотехнология в контексте Русской Идеи". В проекте рассматриваются проблем технологического прорыва России, национальной безопасности и воспитания нового поколения инженеров, основной выход проекта DVD ИИ_НАНО.
Открытия, сделанные в области нанотехнологий
Наночастицы
Современная тенденция к миниатюризации показала, что вещество может иметь совершенно новые свойства, если взять очень маленькую частицу этого вещества. Частицы, размерами от 1 до 1000 нанометров обычно называют «наночастицами». Так, например, оказалось, что наночастицы некоторых материалов имеют очень хорошие каталитические и адсорбционные свойства. Другие материалы показывают удивительные оптические свойства, например, сверхтонкие пленки органических материалов применяют для производства солнечных батарей. Такие батареи, хоть и обладают сравнительно низкой квантовой эффективностью, зато более дешевы и могут быть механически гибкими. Удается добиться взаимодействия искусственных наночастиц с природными объектами наноразмеров — белками, нуклеиновыми кислотами и др. Тщательно очищенные, наночастицы могут самовыстраиваться в определенные структуры. Такая структура содержит строго упорядоченные наночастицы и также зачастую проявляет необычные свойства.
Атомно-силовая микроскопия
Одним из методов, используемых для изучения и даже создания наночастиц, является атомно-силовая микроскопия, а также туннельная электронная микроскопия. Устройство, называемое атомно-силовым микроскопом (разновидность электронного микроскопа) способна не только «рассмотреть» отдельные атомы, но и даже передвигать их на некоторые расстояния. Ученым удалось создать наноструктуры, используя этот метод. Например, компания IBM выложила свой логотип из нескольких атомов углерода, последовательно перемещая их по подложке. Однако такая операция очень сложна, дорога и требует длительного времени, поэтому атомно-силовые микроскопы используются в основном для изучения наночастиц, полученных другими способами.
Самоорганизация наночастиц
Одним из важнейших вопросов, стоящих перед нанотехнологией — как заставить молекулы группироваться определенным способом, самоорганизовываться, чтобы в итоге получить новые материалы или устройства. Этой проблемой занимается раздел химии — супрамолекулярная химия. Она изучает не отдельные молекулы, а взаимодействия между молекулами, которые, организовываясь определенным способом, могут дать новые вещества. Обнадеживает то, что в природе действительно существуют подобные системы и осуществляются подобные процессы. Так, известны биополимеры, способные организовываться в особые структуры. Один из примеров — белки, которые не только могут сворачиваться в глобулярную форму, но и образовывать комплексы — структуры, включающие несколько молекул протеинов (белков). Уже сейчас существует метод синтеза, использующий специфические свойства молекулы ДНК. Берется комплементарная ДНК, к одному из концов подсоединяется молекула А или Б. Имеем 2 вещества: ----А и ----Б, где ---- — условное изображение одинарной молекулы ДНК. Теперь, смешая эти 2 вещества, между двумя одинарными цепочками ДНК образуются водородные связи, которые притянут молекулы А и Б друг к другу. Условно изобразим полученное соединение: ====АБ. Молекула ДНК может быть легко удалена после окончания процесса.
Природные и искусственные материалы, как оказалось, имеют совершенно различные свойства на макро и наноуровне. Так, наночастицы из золота диаметром несколько нанометров проявляют каталитические свойства, тогда как на макроуровне слиток золота — один из самых инертных материалов.
Проблема образования агломератов
Частицы размерами порядка нанометров, или наночастицы, как их называют в научных кругах, имеют одно свойство, которое очень мешает их использованию. Они могут образовывать агломераты, т.е., слипаться друг с другом. Так как наночастицы многообещающи в отраслях производства керамики, металлургии, эту проблему необходимо решать. Одно из возможных решений — использование веществ — дисперсантов, таких как цитрат аммония (водный раствор), имидазолин, олеиновый спирт (не растворимых в воде). Их можно добавлять в среду, содержащую наночастицы. Подробнее это рассмотрено в источнике "Organic Additives And Ceramic Processing,", D. J. Shanefield, Kluwer Academic Publ., Boston (англ.).
Новейшие достижения
Графен
В октябре 2004 года в Манчестерском университете (The University Of Manchester) было создано небольшое количество материала, названного графен. Роберт Фрейтас (Robert Freitas) предполагает, что этот материал может служить подложкой для создания алмазных механосинтетических устройств.
Транзистор из нанотрубок
23 августа 2004 года в Стенфордском университете (Stanford University) удалось создать транзистор из одностенных углеродных нанотрубок и некоторых органических материалов. Нанотрубки играли роль электродов, а помещенный между ними органический материал — полупроводника. Это устройство имело длину 3 нанометра и ширину 2 нанометра.
Новый процессор Intel
1 марта 2005 года сайт news.com сообщил, что компания Intel создала прототип процессора, содержащего наименьший структурный элемент размерами примерно 65 нм. В дальнейшем компания намерена достичь размеров структурных элементов до 5 нм. Данный прототип использует комплементарные металл-оксидные полупроводники, но в дальнейшем компания намерена перейти на новые материалы, такие как квантовые точки, полимерные пленки и нанотрубки.
Плазмон
На сайте PhysOrg.com сообщается о перспективах использования плазмонов. Плазмоны — коллективные колебания свободных электронов в металле. Характерной особенностью возбуждения плазмонов можно считать так называемый плазмонный резонанс, впервые предсказанный Ми в начале 20-го века. Длина волны плазмонного резонанса, например, для сферической частицы серебра диаметром 50 нм составляет примерно 400 нм, что указывает на возможность регистрации наночастиц далеко за границами дифракционного предела (длина волны излучения много больше размеров частицы). В начале 2000-го года, благодаря быстрому прогрессу в технологии изготовления частиц наноразмеров, был дан толчок к развитию новой области нанотехнологии - наноплазмонике. Оказалось возможным передавать электромагнитное излучение вдоль цепочки металлических наночастиц с помощью возбуждения плазмонных колебаний.
Антенна-осциллятор
Дальнейшие исследования направлены на создание осцилляторов для телекоммуникаций. 9 февраля 2005 года сообщается, что в лаборатории Бостонского университета была получена антенна-осциллятор размерами порядка 1 мкм. Это устройство насчитывает 50 миллионов атомов и способно осциллировать с частотой 1,49 гигагерц. Это позволит передавать с ее помощью большие объемы информации.
Экономическое развитие индустрии в сфере нанотехнологий
В 2004 году мировые инвестиции в сферу разработки нанотехнологий почти удвоились по сравнению с 2003 годом и достигли $10 млрд. На долю частных доноров - корпораций и фондов - пришлось примерно $6.6 млрд. инвестиций, на долю государственных структур - около $3.3 млрд. Мировыми лидерами по общему объему капиталовложений в этой сфере стали Япония и США. Япония увеличила затраты на разработку новых нанотехнологий на 126% по сравнению с 2003 годом (общий объем инвестиций составил $4 млрд.), США - на 122% ($3.4 млрд.).
Известные личности в сфере нанотехнологий
Ричард Фейнман – дал первое представление о некоторых концепция в 1959г.
Норио Танигучи –дал определение термину "нанотехнология "
Эрик Дрекслер – дал оценку значимости нанотехнологий, описал сценарий «серого липкого вещества»
Роберт Фрейтас – теоретик в сфере наномедицины
Ральф Меркл – теоретик в сфере нанотехнологий
Сумио Ииджима – изобретатель нанотрубок
Ричард Смолли – со-изобретатель бак-минстрфуллурина
Гарри Крото – со-изобретатель бак-минстрфуллурина
Эрвин Мюллер – изобрел пространственный ионный микроскоп, и зонд атома.
Герд Бинниг – со-изобретатель туннельного микроскопа
Эйнрих Рурер – cо-изобретатель туннельного микроскопа
Пол Аливазатор – Директор Отдела Материаловедения в Национальной Лаборатории Лоуренс Беркли
Крис Феникс – со-основатель Центра Ответственного по нанотехнологиям
Майк Тридер – со-основатель Центра Ответственного по нанотехнологиям
Федон Авуа –изобретатель первых электронных устройств из нанотрубок
Алекс Зетл – построил первый молекулярный мотор основанный на нанотрубках
Использованная литература и ссылки
- "Nanoscale Composites Formed by Encapsulation of Polymers in MoS2. From Conjugated Polymers to Plastics. Detection of Metal to Insulator Transition." R. Bissessur, J. L. Schindler, C. R. Kannewurf and Mercouri Kanatzidis, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 1993, 245, 249-254
- "Topotactic Solid-State Polymerization of Aniline in Layered Uranyl Phosphate" Y.-J. Liu andM. G. Kanatzidis, Inorg. Chem. 1993, 32, 2989-2991
- "Encapsulation of Polymers into MoS2 and Metal to Insulator Transition in Metastable MoS2" R.Bissessur, M, Kanatzidis, J. L. Schindler and C. R. Kannewurf, J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1993, 1582-1585
- "Lamellar Polymer-LixMoO3 Nanocomposites Via Encapsulative Precipitation" Lei Wang, Jon Schindler, Carl R. Kannewurf, Mercouri G. Kanatzidis, J. Mater. Chem., 1997, 7, 1277-1283.
- "a -RuCl3: A New Host for Polymer Intercalation. Lamellar Polymer/RuCl3 Nanocomposites" L. Wang, P. Brazis, M. Rocci, C. R. Kannewurf, M. G. Kanatzidis, in "Organic/Inorganic Hybrid Materials" Eds. R. M. Laine, C. Sanchez, C. J. Brinker, E. Giannelis, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 1998, Vol. 519, 257-264.
Интернет источники
1. -
2. – Cyber Encyclopedia ofTechnologies
3.
4.
5.
6.