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The Shirkov Parish.
To the north - west of Tver among The Valdai Hills, which are covered with
confferous and deciduous forest, there is a long chain offour lakes, formed
from the river
reaches of the
the river was not abundant in water, but in
present Volgo lake which caused this formation of lakes (The dam was recon -
structed in 1943).
The
also for its reach history. In early prehistoric times - mainly during the
Stone Age and the Broze Age - this area was already populated by hunters and
fishermen.
The ancient Pinns were the first inhabitants of this territory for many
centuries. From the 9th century the Slav tribe, Lreeveech lived here, but from
the 12th century onwards the Novgorod Slav community was the main population .
This land has witnessed many important events of our history such as internal
feuds between Princes; Khan Batu"s invasion; and the long and stubborn struggle
against Lithuanian and Polish invaders. The oldest paths of trading ran across
this territory. The land knew periods of flourishing as well as periods of de-
vastation. Nowdays it is a picturesque region ideal for rest and tourism. Many
old relicts and monuments of various ages have been well preserved.
One of the most beautiful spots of the
In ancient times there were settlements and a heathen temple here. Today one
can see the Shirkov Parish. For three centuries it has been standing in full
harmony with the rivers, boundless fore4st and vast skies. Nature and archi-
tecture in harmony.
The origin of the name of grave - yard is unknown. The unique Shirkiov ar-
chitecture was created by nameless masters. In an old contract, drawn up by
the carpenter"s team, who were to build the church, there was the following
recommendation: " Build a temple as large and beautiful as your senses command"
These words show the character of Russian wooden architecture at its best. The
ability of our ancestors to select the sites for their settlements and churches
is also well known.
The wooden Ioan Predtechy church is the oldest monument in the Shirkon Pa -
rish. It is considered to be finest piece of national wooden architecture. The
best traditions of Russian carpenters are exemplified in this masterpiece. It
is a peasant"s spacimen of beauty born in daily work and in permanent contact
with the field, forest, rivers and village houses. Creatness and simplicity ,
power and elegance go together simultaneously.
The Ioan Predtechy church is the most interesting wooden tier church of the
" tetrehedron on a tetrehedron" style. As far back as 1887 it was noted that
" as for Russian architecture, the exterior of the church is unusual and of
great interest". This style of church was popular in former times. Thus we
known about the existance of similar churches in the Nilowa Stolbenskaya her -
mitage from the middle of the 17th centory.
According to the certifecate compiled by the priest of Shirkov church Illy-
nsky, in respose to a census, offered by the Emperor of the Archaeological Co-
mission of the
which unfortunately has not been preserved), the church is dated from 1694.
THE UNIVERSITIES in
In the turbulent centures that followed the Norman invasi-
on, severalefforts weremade to establishuniversities in
a bull from Pope Clement V authorizing him to establish a uni-
versity in
plished. An attempt was made in 1465 tofound a university in
the England Pale could do it, with all the rights and privile-
ges of the
presided over by Tomas, Earl of Desmond; two ears later he was
attainted and beheaded, his estates were confiscated, and once
more the idea of a university came to nothing.At last,in 1591,
the idea was realized.
TRINITY COLLEGE
In that year a group of
ter from Queen ElizabethI incorporating
mater universitatis. By this term they envisaged that agroup
of university colleges would sterm fromTrinity in the conti-
nental and English style;owing to the course of Tudor and sub-
sequent Irish history that ideal has not yet been realized.The
Corporation of
and dilapidated buldings of the Monastery of All Hallows,lying
south-east of thesity wallsSubscriptions were raised from
among theprincipal gentleman of eachcountry, who had been
invited to assistthe new college to the benefit of the whole
country, whereby Knowlege, Learning and Civility may be incre-
ased,to the banishment of barbarism,tumults and disorderly li-
ving from among them. A number oflanded estates were secured
to the College out of the confiscations which followed the de-
feat northen Earls.
The university wasdesigned to encourageEnglish culture
in
tory form,so that it's establishment afforded no opportunities
for highereducation to recusant bodies, whether Catholic or
Dissenting. The college survived the storms of the Cromwellian
and Revolution periods, and settled down as the university of
the colonialascendancy, taking it's tonefrom the new Whig
society,mainly mercantile and nouveau riche,which had been put
in power by theWilliamite victory. Yet even in the religious
and political doldrums of the eghteenth century, the true uni-
versity and liberal spiritsurvived in Trinity,and it's alum-
ni included Swift,Berkeley, Bruke, Goldsmith, Grattan,and Wolf
Tone. Towards the close of thecentury there was an awakening
sense ofindependenceand of patriotism in what had been a
colonial minority, witha consequent relaxation of the penal
code which had discriminated, in religion and culture, against
the nativeIrish and the Anglo-Irish majority; and after the
passage of the Catholic Relief Act,1793, Trinity abandoned the
exclusive character it had hith erto borne.
Since 1947,the College hasreceived substantial grants
from the
sity a great diversity of students, wuth many of the undergra-
duates coming from Great Britan and from overseas.
The University is represented by the Chancellor,Vice-Chan-
cellor and Senate,whose main function is to confer degrees.The
College is governed by the Board of Trinity College.The assent
of the Board is required to allprofessional chairs and other
academic posts, and determines details of courses and examina-
tions. The Povost of the College is nominated by the Goverment
from one of three names submitted by the Board. Except in this
last respect,the University and the College enjoy complete au-
tonomy. The College Library is Great
Britan and
THE
Under the Queen’s College (
tablished by the Goverment at
vide higher education on a non-denominational basis. Ufortuna-
tely, the character of theseColleges were felt to be out of
accord with Catholic educational principles, and after a storm
of public controversy they were condemned by the Hierarchy.
In 1854,the Catholic University of Ireland was established
by the Hierarchy, whoinvited JohnHenry Newman to be it's
first Rector. Newman, imbued with the liberal principlesembo-
died in his celebrated Idea of aUniversity, was not quite at
home amid the realities of Irish political and religious cont-
roversy, and his brave experiment failed. As 'Newman's Univer-
sity' was not recognized by the State,it could not confer deg-
rees,neither did it have any public endowment. Coriously, it's
best success was in medicine, for
the
the Apothecaries’ Hall recognized the courses of study pursued
by the Catholic UniversityMedical School students and admit-
ted them to theCollege and Hall examinations, thus to become
registered medical practitioners.
The
an examiningbody, set up mainly forthe purpose of enabling
the students of the
degrees. In 1883,the
led
Society of Jesus, who maintained it succesfully until the pas-
sing of the Irish Universities Act,1908. This Act provided for
the dissolution of the
versities, one in
sity, and the other, in
land. The two universities are self-governing institution ope-
rating under charter, autonomous as regards policy and admini-
stration, and appointing their own academic and administrative
staffs.
The National University of Ireland is a federal university,
with a central office in
College Galway; and one
lege, Maynooth. Maynooth is a seminary for the training of Ca-
tholic'clergy. It wasfounded in 1795 and endowed by a Gover-
ment who, chastened by theFrench Revolution, recognized the
conservative and conserving character of the Irish priesthood.
In 1845 the Maynooth College Board of Trustees was incorpora-
ted by Statute, and in 1899 was invested by the HolySee with
authority to confer degrees in Philosophy, Theology, and Canon
Law.
The
for degrees are conducted by the Collegeswhich, in practice,
lay downtheir own programme and set their own examinations.
Courses are given in the various faculties,with certain excep-
tions,at each of the Constituent Colleges; and in Arts, Philo-
sophy and Sociology, CelticSudents, and Science at Maynooth.
Courses in DairyScience are given only at
(outside of
Dublin.By the University Education (Agriculture and Dairy Sci-
ence) Act, 1926, the RoyalCollege of Science and theAlbert
fulfilled by these institutions.
Like
through the Department of Education, financial assistance from
the State in the form of annual grants-in-aid, as well as non-
recurrent grants for capital purposes. Each of the Colleges is
a complete organism,with it's own Governing Body and full con-
trol of it's own finances.
* * *
RURAL DOMESTIC ECONOMY SCHOOLS.
There are twelve residental schools of Rural Domestic Eco-
nomy,seven of which operate under the Department of Agricultu-
re and Fisheries. The schools are privately owned,but the Sta-
te subsidized and subject toinspection in the samewayas
agricultural colleges.Students are admitted from the age of 15
upwards.The course runs from September until June.The syllabus
comprises theoretical and practical instrustion in the follow-
ing subjects: - Poultrykeeping, Dairing, Cookery, Housewifery,
Dressmaking, Laundry, Artsand Crafts, Phisiology,Higiene,
First Aid and Home Nursing, Horticulture and general subjects.
At the end of the course, a standartexamination compris-
ing written,oral and practical tests, is heid and certificates
are awarded to successful candidates.About 600 young women at-
tend these schoolsannually. Over 250 scholarships awarded by
schools. In addition, capitationgrants are payable for each
eligible pupil.Some pupils who complete the session at a rural
domestic economyschool proceed to other studies, for careers
in Poultry Specialization, Farm Home Management, Domestic Sci-
ents,Hotel Management,or Nursing.The course at the schools is,
however, a good training for all future housewives.
The Munster Institute,
culture and Fisheries, conducts advancedcourses for selected
pupils from rural domestic economy schools: -
1.A three year course in Farm Home Menagement.
2.A three year course in Poultry Specialization.
3.A one year course in Poultry Husbundry.
Girls who complete thethree years coursesareemployed as
instructors by the CountryCommittees ofAgroculture, or as
teachers. Girls whocmplete the year's course in Poultry Hus-
bundry are employed as technicians in the poultry industry.
ART SCHOOLS.
The Metropolitan SchoolofArt began as an academy esta-
blished in 1746 by the Royal Dublin Society, for the promotion
of drawing and painting. During the first hundred years of the
School's existence,instruction was free of charge;and the four
departments of figure drawing,landscape and ornament,architec-
ture,and modeling,provided courses useful to sculptors, embro-
iderers, weavers, printers, silversmithandworkers in other
crafts.In the ninteenth century, the Schoolwassuccessively
under the control of theRoyal DublinSociety, the Board of
trade, the Department of Science and Art,and the Department of
Agroculture andTechnical
Instruction for
it's transfer to the last-named body, classes were established
in the principal artistic crafts, including metalwork and ene-
melling, mosaic, embroideryand woodcarving. The School also
aquired a highreputation for it's part in the development of
stained glass and for the felicitous influence which,under the
guidance of SirWilliam Orpen, it exerted on painting in Ire-
land. In 1924, control was assumed by the Department of Educa-
tion; an extension and development of the School, was establi-
shed.
The
of thesistem of Art
Education in
the Departmenttof Education. It's general purpose is to pro-
mote the advancement of Art,to advocate and maintain the high-
est artistic values in national culture, and to combine artis-
tic design with practicalskill in the interests of industry.
There
arethree schools; the
Painting and the
which includes anUpper and a Lower Division. In ths way, the
College provides for the study of the Fine Arts and of the De-
corative Arts and Crafts, and for the training of Art teachers
eligiblefor employment in post-primary schools. The College
has working arrangements withUniversity ColIegeDublin and
with the
liaison with the National Library,the
National Gellery of
Outside
courses are provided ay the
CrawfordSchool of Art,
the Schools of Art in Limerick and
To foster the study of the History of Art, Miss Sarah Pur-
ser and Sir John Purser Griffith established,in 1934,two equal
funds, one to be administered by
by UniversityCollege Dublin, the income from which provides
TravellingScoolarships. andprizes to be competed for every
year, alrtenatelyin each University. Extra-mural courses are
given at University College Dublin,which College also provides
courses leading to a degree in theHistory of European Paint-
ing takenwith anothersubject. Lectures are also provided,
mainly for post-primary students, in the National Gallery.
THE CONQUERING
Edward the Confessor died in January , 1066.On Christmas Day in the same
year William the Conqueror was crowned king in Westminster Abbey. It had been
a terrible year for Englishmen. From the very beginning of it they had feared
that evil things were going to happen, and when a comet began to flame in the
sky , early in the summer , their fears were increased. To all Englishmen it
seemed to foretell defeat. And defeat came upon them when Duke William landed
at Pevensey , in
him , but he and many of his faithful thanes were slain. The bravest of them
gathered to make a last desperate fight round the English standarts ,and when
they fell the days of English liberty were over for a long period.On the very
spot where Harold and his men made their last stand the Norman conqueror built
Battle Abbey to commemorate his victory. If you go there today, you will be
shown the place where Harold fell.
It was a hard time for Englishmen. As William marched slowly by a round-
about way to
them many years to recover. His soldiers searched everywhere for food and all
the things that an army needs. Villagers, flying in terror to the woods, saw
their cattle driven off,their stored corn and hay carted away,and their houses
burnt. This was the way in which William hoped to terrify Englishmen into sub-
mission. He was successful. On Christmas Day,1066,he was crowned king of the
English by the Archbishop of
Straightway he began to drive English nobles from their lands,for he said
they had treacherously fought against their true king. And in their places he
put Normans, who despised the English, and treated them cruelly. So in the
year 1067,if you had been travelling about then, you would have seen parties
of
that William had given them in returm for their help at Hastings.These men ,
of couse,had Norman names, and if you look at
a map of
see that some villages are still called by the names of the Norman lords to
whom William gave them, for example, Norton Mandeville in Essex.Some English-
men nowadays have Norman names, such as
Harcout,
a long time after the battle of Hastings no one who wished to be considered a
gentleman spoke English;even little boys at school learnt their lessons in
French, so that, when they grew up, they might be able to keep company with
the rulers of the land and pretend they were
Let us imagine that we are visiting a village when it is new master rides
into it.Our old English master, our thane, is dead, for he went off with his
soldiers when Harold called for his help against the foreigner, and fell be-
side his king on the day of the battle of Hastings.All though the winter the
villagers have starved, for they have had little corn & meat to live on,since
William,s army went past on it is way to London.Their houses are in a ruinous
condition, And the very barns have gone, for some of them were burnt & others
pulled down to supply fuel for Norman camp fires.The old mill wheel has not
turned since the village was sacked, for even
the dam, which supplied the
ter, was hacked to bits by the soldiers.So when the new master rides into the
village, he sees lean sterving men, women and children.There are fire-black-
ened ruins of English homes all around.Some small patches of growing corn can
be seen, for even in starvation time men must save some seed for the next crop.
But the fields are small compared with what they were.
How we hate this new-comer!How we should like to take vengeance on him and
his men for all our sufferings, & for all the fathers & brothers who will ne-
ver return from
this man is no coward, for he rides into the middle of us, & looks all straight
in the face.Rising in his stirrups, he calls in French : " I would have you
know that King William has given me these lands & that you are my tenants now.
Do your part faithfully, & I shall do mine.But if any man checks me in my just
rights, let him beware".No Englishman understands a word, but everybody sus-
pects what the speaker means well enough.
He makes his way to the thane's house, & there he meets the window & her
daughter accompanied by the steward.He explains the lady that a small piece of
land out of her husband's estate will be left to her.She knows that she will
be very poor for the rest of her days, but she is to proud to ask for anything
more and withdraws in silence with her daughter.
Then the
to see out all the old thane's rights carefully set there; how he received so
much hay every year from one man, so much corn from another, and so much meat
from a third; and how Aelfgar and men like him work once a week for him all
the year round and do extra work in harvest; and how Gurth and his equals do
not work for the thane, but pay so much food. When the accounts are brought,
he listens carefully as the stewards axplains each entry, for he wishes to
know exactly how much the land that the king has given him is worth. The ste-
ward, of couse, says that the value has gone down very much in the last year.
A talk follows till far on into the night, and many questions are put by
the master. How much land is there suitable for ploughing? How much of it did
the old thane keep for his own use? How many bushels of corn come from each
acre? Do the villagers know how to manure and drain the land properly? Is
there any grassland that could be made to grow extra supplies of corn? "For,"
says lord, "my soldiers must have plenty to eat"."Yes," says the steward,
"there is much land fit for the purpose.But do you propose to make the
villagers work on this and do their other work as well? Remember, Sir, that
there are fewer of them than there were".
The
his villagers to do not only this, but much more besides. Indeed he goes so
far as to say that the men like Gurth, who never worked but only paid food,
shall now both pay and work, for more land must be cultivated. And he adds
that he intends to increase the amounts of meat, hay, eggs, cheese, butter
and other things that the villagers pay. So the stewards returns home in a
thoughtful and unhappy state, for he sees hard times coming for his friends
and does not like telling them about the extra work that they will have to do.
The
his chief follower, and posted sentinels; for he has no wish to be murdered
in his sleep by his new servants, as has happened to some of his friends.He
and his followerds do not thing much of the old house. The old English thanes
did not make their houses strong for defence, for they had nothing to fear
from their villagers. But the
this to sleep in, or our throats wiil all be cut some night".So the steward
wiil hear if another piece of work for his friends in the village to do.
In the morning the
land accompanied by the steward who listens to all his plans. He is told to
have the mill dam repaired by next harvest, and a new whell put in. Then the
master looks round for a position for a new house. He means to make it by
throwing up a mound of earth and building a wooden tower on top of it. It is
to be surrounded by a wall of earth and a ditch. He marks out the boundaries
at once and orders the steward to have the digging commenced. Next he goes to
the woods to look for timber. After the inspection he says:"Let me hear axes
at work here when I come round tommorow". As he rides home he sees the old
village church. The roof lets the rain in, and some of the timber of which
the building is made rotting away. He indignantly says it's more like a broken-
down stable than a house of God and swears in the name of Saint Valerie who
sent the
church.
He has not been long back at the hall before Gurth and his friends ask to
see him. When they are admitted to the hall, they say they have heard the word
that is going round, how every villagers, big and little, is to work on the new
fields, which the lord is going to fence in, and is to pay more food than ever
before. They say that this is against the custom of the village. They paid food
to the old thanes, because King Alfred ordered their forefathers to do so. But
they never laboured like serfs on any man's land. They are free men, and when
they have paid their dues, as King Alfred ordered, no man can ask them for mo-
re.
This bold speech has a terrible result. The new lord rises from his seat.
His eyes are blazing with rage, and the villagers fear nothing less than death
at the hands of the surrounding soldiers. " Custom !" the master shouts, "Cus-
tom! You talk to me about custom as though it ruled all. I and my friends won
this land by the sword from you and traitors like you, who were in arms against
your lawful King William. Traitors lie at the mercy of their conquerors and
must be punished for their treachery. Custom will not protect you. Get you go-
ne. Soldiers! Clear the hall".
For many days there is rage in the hearts of the villagers, for the smaller
men like Aelfgar are ground to poverty by the new lord. Thus they feel the re-
sults of the Norman Conquest. All English feel them as well, and for five
years to come there are angry rebellions in different parts of the land.
University Education
There are 44 universities (not counting the
Open University) in
Although the Goverment is responsible for providing about 80 per cent of
universities income it does not control their work or teaching nor does it have
direct dealings with the universities.The grants are distributed by the Secreta-
ry of State for Education and Science.
The English universities are : Aston (
Sheffield,
Southhampton,
sity of
Medicine,
and the
Scottish
universities are :
riot-Watt
(
then
ster in Coleraine.
The Universities of Oxford and
centuries
and the Scottish Universities of St. Andrews,
were founded in the nineteenth or twentieth centuries.
There are five other institutions where the work is of university standard :
the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology ; the two post-
graduate business school which are supported jointly by industry and the Gover-
ment -
the
Studies,
associated with the London School of Economics and the
of Science and Technology ; Cranfield Inctitute of Technology for mainly post-
graduate work in aeronautics and other subjects ; and the Royal College of Art.
My coming to
one
comes as a student one cannot escape the influence of the
tions - and they go back so far ! Here, perhaps, more than anywhere else, I have
felt at one and the same time the Past, the Present and even the Future. It"s
easy to see and the old grey stone buildings how the past has moulded the pre-
sent and how the present is giving shape to the future. So let me tell you a
little of what this University town looks like and how it came to be here at all.
The story of the University begins, so far as I know, in 1209 when several
hundred students and scholars arrived in the little town of Cambridge after ha-
ving walked 60 miles from Oxford. As was the custom then, they had joined them-
selves into a "Universitas" of Society - the word "University", like the word
"College", meant originally a society of people with a common employment ; it
was only later it came to be associated with scholarship.
These students were all churchmen and had been studying in Oxford at that ci-
ty"s
well-known schools. It was a hard life at
trouble between the townsfolk and the students. Then one day a student acciden-
tally killed a man of the town. The Mayor arrested three other students, who
were innocent, and by order of King John (who was quarrelling with the Church
and knew that the death of three clergymen would annoy it) they were put to
death by hanging. In protest, all the students moved elsewhere, some coming to
Before long there were new quarrel with the townsfolk, for the University was
anxious to be independent of the Town, and the Town was equally anxious for
authority over the new student population. "Town" and "Gown" battles were fre-
quent.
The boarding-houses and shopkeepers cheated the students, who very soon orga-
nized themselves under an elected leader called a Chancellor, and he fixed pri-
ces that should be paid. Gradually the University gained control.
Side by side with the fight for freedom from Town rule was another for liberty
from Church rule, until by 1500 the University was its own master at last.
Of course there were no Colleges in those early days and student life was very
different from what it is now. Students were of all ages and came from every -
where. Those from the same part of the country tended to group together and
these groups called "Nations" still exist, by the way, at some European Univer-
sities.
The students were armed ; some even banded together to rob the people of the
countryside. Gradually, the idea of the College developed and in 1284 Peterhouse
the
oldest College in
Life in College was strict ; students were forbidden to play games, to sing
(except sacred music), to hunt or fish or even to dance.